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Hadhramaut

Coordinates: 16°N 49°E / 16°N 49°E / 16; 49
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For other uses, see Hadhramaut (disambiguation).

Hadhramaut
حَضْرَمَوْتُ
Region
The old walled city of Shibam, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
Seiyun Palace, one of the world’s largest mud-brick structures
The Minerate of al-Muhdhar Mosque
Al-Hajarayn, Wadi Dowan
Mukalla, capital city of Hadhramaut
Map of Hadhramaut in the Arabian Peninsula
Map of Hadhramaut in the Arabian Peninsula
Coordinates: 16°N 49°E / 16°N 49°E / 16; 49
Countries
Governorates and ProvincesHadhramaut, Shabwah, Al Mahrah, Dhofar, Southern Najran
DemonymHadharem

Hadhramaut[a] (Arabic: حَضْرَمَوْتُ, romanized: Ḥaḍramawt, Hadhrami Arabic: حَضْرَمُوتُ, Ḥaḍramūt, Hadramautic: 𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩, Ḥḍrmt) is a geographic region in southern Arabia, comprising mainly of the eastern Governorates of Yemen, the Dhofar Governorate in south-western Oman and the Najran Province in southern Saudi Arabia. The name is of ancient origin, and is retained in the name of the Yemeni Governorate of Hadhramaut. The people of Hadhramaut are called Hadharem. They formerly spoke Hadramautic, an old South Arabian language, but they now predominantly speak Hadhrami Arabic.

Etymology

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The origin of the name of Ḥaḍramawt is not exactly known, and there are numerous competing hypotheses about its meaning. The most common folk etymology is that the region's name means "death has come," from Arabic: حَضَر, romanized: ḥaḍara, lit. 'he came' and Arabic: مَوْت, romanized: mawt, lit. 'death'.

Ḥaḍramawt has also been identified with Biblical Hazarmaveth (Biblical Hebrew: חֲצַרְמָוֶת, romanized: Ḥăṣarmāweṯ; Genesis 10:26[1] and 1 Chronicles 1:20).[2] There, it is the name of a son of Joktan, who is identified with Qahtan in Islamic tradition, the purported ancestor of the South Arabian kingdoms. According to various Bible dictionaries, the name "Hazarmaveth" means "court of death," reflecting a meaning similar to the Arabic folk etymologies.

The origins of the name are unknown, with several scholarly proposals. Kamal Salibi proposed that the diphthong "aw" in the name is an incorrect vocalization.[3] He notes that "-ūt" is a frequent ending for place names in the Ḥaḍramawt, and given that "Ḥaḍramūt" is the colloquial pronunciation of the name and also its ancient pronunciation, the correct reading of the name should be "place of ḥḍrm." He proposes, then, that the name means "the green place," which is apt for its well-watered wadis whose lushness contrasts with the surrounding high desert plateau.

A now rejected etymology was proposed by Juris Zarins, rediscoverer of the city claimed to be the ancient incense trade route trade capital Ubar in Oman, who claimed that the name may come from the Greek word ὕδρευματα hydreumata, i.e. enclosed (and often fortified) watering stations in wadis.[4] Though it accurately describes the configuration of settlements in the pre-Islamic Wadi Ḥaḍramawt, this explanation for the name is anachronistic and phonetically inconsistent (for example, the name contains pharyngeal fricatives, which are neither found nor substituted for existing sounds in Greek).

Variations of the name are attested as early as the middle of the 1st millennium BC. The names ḥḍrmt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩩) and ḥḍrmwt (𐩢𐩳𐩧𐩣𐩥𐩩) are found in texts of the Old South Arabian languages (Ḥaḍramitic, Minaic, Qatabanic, and Sabaic), though the second form is not found in any known Ḥaḍramitic inscriptions.[5] In either form, the word itself can be a toponym, a tribal name, or the name of the kingdom of Ḥaḍramawt. In the late fourth or early 3rd century BC, Theophrastus gives the name Άδρραμύτα,[6] a direct transcription of the Semitic name into Greek.

History

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Main article: History of Hadhramaut
Part of a series on the
History of Yemen
Ancient history
Islamic history
Modern history
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Ancient

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Main article: Kingdom of Hadhramaut
An ancient sculpture of a griffin, from the royal palace at Shabwa, the then-capital city of Hadhramaut
Remains of Khor Rori

The Kingdom of Hadramout existed before the birth of Christ, but its exact establishment date cannot be confirmed. Its capital was Shabwa and it was not far from the city of Teman (the capital of the Kingdom of Qataban).[7] It was a tribal federation consisting of several tribes united by their common veneration of the god Sin. Hadramout was originally the name of one of the tribes. The mention of Hadramout and its god Sin is found in the inscription of Surwah by the Makrib Sabean writer Karib'il Watar I around 700–680 BCE. The Kingdom, led by King Shahr-al-Khuraymat, formed an alliance with the Kingdom of Ma'in and the Kingdom of Qataban and became independent from the Kingdom of Sheba around 330 BCE, during which the Himyarite dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Sheba.[8][9] The relationship between the Kingdom of Hadramout and the Himyarite Kingdom remained tense, with both sides waging wars against each other for control of the trade routes and territory in the region.[10]

The Hadhrami are referred to as Chatramotitai in ancient Greek texts. Hadhramautic texts come later than Sabaean ones, and some Sabaean texts from Hadhramaut are known. Greek, Latin, Sabaean and Hadhramautic texts preserve the names of a large number of kings of Hadhramaut, but there is as yet no definitive chronology of their reigns. Their capital was Shabwa in the northwest corner of the kingdom, along the Incense trade route. Eratosthenes called it a metropolis. It was an important cult centre as well. At first, the religion was South Arabian polytheism, distinguished by the worship of the Babylonian moon god Sin. By the sixth century, the monotheistic cult of Rahmanan was followed in the local temple.[11]

The political history of Hadhramaut is not easy to piece together. Numerous wars involving Hadhramaut are referenced in Sabaean texts. From their inscriptions, the Hadhrami are known to have fortified Libna (now Qalat [ar])[12] against Himyar and to have fortified mwyt (Ḥiṣn al-Ghurāb حِصْن ٱلْغُرَاب) against the Kingdom of Aksum in the period following the death of Dhū Nuwās (525/7). The kingdom ceased to exist by the end of the 3rd century CE, having been annexed by the Himyarite Kingdom. Hadhramaut continued to be used in the full titulature of the kings of Sabaʾ and Dhu Raydān (Himyar).[11]

In the 2nd century CE, Hadramout was known for its frankincense and myrrh trade.[13] The incense trade route (southern incense route) that passed through the southern part of Hadramout helped the region flourish economically and culturally.[14] The Kingdom of Hadramout played a significant role in connecting the cultures of Arabia, Mesopotamia, East Africa, and the Roman Empire.[15]

Islamic

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The flag of Hadhramaut in the Battle of Siffin

In the 7th century, Islam spread to Hadramout, and it was gradually integrated into the Caliphate. The region played a role in Islamic history during the Rashidun Caliphate and the Umayyad Caliphate. In the 11th century, the Hadramout region came under the rule of the Mahdids, who were of Banu Hadhrami origin.[16]: 237  They established the Qasimi dynasty, which ruled the region for several centuries.[16]: 239 

Early Islamic authors believed the nomadic Kinda tribe that founded a kingdom in central Arabia were originally from Hadhramaut, although distinct from the settled Hadhrami population.[11]

Miqdad ibn Aswad, a companion of Muhammad, was reportedly from Hadhramaut.[17] Several prophets before them are believed to have dwelt here, including Hud of ʿĀd. He is thought to be buried at Qabr Hud,[18][19] which is also called Shiʿb Hud, but this is not universally accepted.[20][21]

Portuguese and Ottoman Influence

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In the 16th century, the Portuguese arrived in Hadramout and established several settlements along the southern coast. However, their influence was short-lived as the Yemeni Imams managed to drive them out by the 17th century.[22]: 115  Subsequently, Hadramout came under Ottoman influence, and the Ottomans maintained control over the region until the early 20th century.[22]: 114 

Modern

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Flag of the Kathiri state in Hadhramaut
Flag of the Qu'aiti state in Hadhramaut

The Qu'aiti sultans ruled the vast majority of Hadramaut, under a loose British protectorate, the Aden Protectorate, from 1882 to 1967, when the Hadhramaut was annexed by South Yemen. The Qu'aiti dynasty was founded by Umar bin Awadh al-Qu'aiti, a Yafa'i tribesman whose wealth and influence as hereditary Jemadar of the Nizam of Hyderabad's armed forces enabled him to establish the Qu'aiti dynasty in the latter half of the 19th century, winning British recognition of his paramount status in the region in 1882. The British Government and the traditional and scholarly sultan Ali bin Salah signed a treaty in 1937, appointing the British government as "advisors" in Hadhramaut. The British exiled him to Aden in 1945, but the Protectorate lasted until 1967.[citation needed]

In 1967, the former British Colony of Aden and the former Aden Protectorate including Hadramaut became an independent Communist state, the People's Republic of South Yemen, later the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen. South Yemen was united with North Yemen in 1990 as the Republic of Yemen.[23]

The capital and largest city of Hadhramaut is the port Mukalla. Mukalla had a 1994 population of 122,400 and a 2003 population of 174,700, while the port city of Ash Shihr has grown from 48,600 to 69,400 in the same time. One of the more historically important cities in the region is Tarim. An important locus of Islamic learning, it is estimated to contain the highest concentration of descendants of Muhammad anywhere in the world.[24]

Hadhramaut in a 1732 copy of the map by Ottoman geographer Kâtip Çelebi (1609–57), from the first printed atlas in the Ottoman Empire

Geography and geology

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See also: Geology of Yemen; Geography of Yemen; and South Arabian fog woodlands, shrublands, and dune
Region close to Seiyun in the Hadhramaut Valley

The current governorate of Hadhramaut roughly incorporates the former territory of the two sultanates.[citation needed] It consists of a narrow, arid coastal plain bounded by the steep escarpment of a broad plateau (Arabic: ٱلْجَوْل, romanized: al-Jawl, averaging 1,370 m (4,490 ft)), with a very sparse network of deeply sunk wadis (seasonal watercourses). The undefined northern edge of Hadhramaut slopes down to the desert Empty Quarter. Where the Hadhramaut Plateau or Highlands (Arabic: هَضْبَة حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Haḍbat Ḥaḍramawt) meets the Gulf of Aden in the Arabian Sea, elevation abruptly decreases.[25]

In a wider sense, Hadhramaut includes the territory of Mahra to the east all the way to the contemporary border with Oman.[26] This encompasses the current governorates of Hadramaut and Mahra in their entirety as well as parts of the Shabwah Governorate.

The Hadharem live in densely built towns centered on traditional watering stations along the wadis. Hadharem harvest crops of wheat and millet, tend date palm and coconut groves, and grow some coffee. On the plateau, Bedouins tend sheep and goats. Society is still highly tribal, with the old Seyyid aristocracy, descended from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, traditionally educated, strict in their Islamic observance, and highly respected in religious and secular affairs.[citation needed]

Hadhramaut is geographically divided into Inner Hadhramaut (Arabic: حضرموت الداخل), Coastal Hadhramaut (Arabic: حضرموت الساحل), and Rub' al Khali.[27]

Inner Hadhramaut

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Mountains

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See also: Hadhramaut Mountains, Geology of Yemen, and Geography of Yemen

The Hadhramaut Mountains (Arabic: جِبَال حَضْرَمَوْت, romanized: Jibāl Ḥaḍramawt),[28] also known as the "Mahrat Mountains"[29] (Arabic: جِبَال ٱلْمَهْرَة, romanized: Jibāl Al-Mahrah), are a mountain range in Yemen.[30] They are contiguous with the Omani Dhofar Mountains to the northeast,[25] and James Canton considered Aden in the southwest to be in the mountains' recesses.[31]

Wadis

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Coastal Hadhramaut

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Culture

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Clothing

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Cuisine

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Music and dance

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Architecture

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Economy

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Historically, Hadhramaut was known for being a major producer of frankincense, which in the early 20th century was mainly exported to Mumbai in India.[32]: 84  The region has also produced senna and coconut. Currently, Hadhramout produces approximately 260,000 barrels of oil per day; one of the most productive fields is Al Maseelah in the strip (14), which was discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is keen to develop its oil fields to increase oil production to increase national wealth in response to the requirements of economic and social development in the country. Oil contributes 30–40% of the nation's GDP, over 70% of total state revenues, and more than 90% of the value of the country's exports.[32]: 85 

Oil and gas

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A Soviet discovery in the southern governorate of Shabwah has proven only marginally successful even when taken over by a different group. A Western consortium began exporting oil from Masila in the Hadhramaut in 1993, and production there reached 67,000 m3/d (420,000 bbl/d) in 1999. There are new finds in the Jannah (formerly known as the Joint Oil Exploration Area) and east Shabwah blocks. Yemen's oil exports in 1995 earned about US$1 billion. Yemen's offshore oil and gas deposits are estimated to contain billions of barrels of oil and gas. Marib oil contains associated natural gas. In September 1995, the Yemeni Government signed an agreement that designated TotalEnergies of France to be the lead company for a project for the export of liquefied natural gas (LNG). In 1997, Yemen Gas Company joined with various privately held companies to establish Yemen LNG (YLNG). In August 2005, the government gave final approval to three LNG supply agreements, enabling YLNG to award a $2 billion contract to an international consortium to build the country's first liquefaction plant at Balhat on the Arabian Sea coast. The project is a $3.7 billion investment over 25 years, producing approximately 6.7 million tons of LNG annually, with shipments likely to go to the United States and South Korea. Production of LNG began in October 2009. The Yemen government expects the LNG project to add $350 million to its budget and enable it to develop a petrochemicals industry.[33]

Hadramout produces approximately 258.8 thousand barrels per day.[34] One of the prominent oil fields is the Masila Basin Sector (14), discovered in 1993. The Yemeni government is committed to developing its oil fields to increase oil production, aiming to enhance national wealth in response to the country's economic and social development needs. Oil contributes between 30% and 40% of the gross domestic product (GDP) value and represents more than 70% of the total general budget revenues of the state. Moreover, it constitutes more than 90% of the country's export value.[35]

Politics

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Demographics

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Hadhrami diaspora

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See also: Hadharem

Since the early 19th century, large-scale Hadhramaut migration has established sizable Hadhrami minorities all around the Indian Ocean,[36] in South Asia, Southeast Asia and East Africa, including Mombasa, Hyderabad, Aurangabad, Maharashtrian Konkan,[37][38] Mangalore, Bhatkal, Gangolli, Malabar, Sylhet, Tanzania, the Malay Archipelago, Sri Lanka, southern Philippines and Singapore.[39] In Hyderabad and Aurangabad, the community is known as Chaush and resides mostly in the neighborhood of Barkas. There are also settlements of Hadharem in Gujarat, such as in Ahmadabad and Surat. In South India, the Nawayath community also descends from Hadrami traders.

Earlier, several sultans in the Malay Archipelago such as the Malacca Sultanate,[40] Pontianak Sultanate or Sultanate of Siak Sri Indrapura were descents of Hadharem . In the 19th century, Hadhrami businessmen owned many of the maritime armada of barks, brigs, schooners and other ships in the Malay archipelago.[41] In modern times, several Indonesian ministers, including former Foreign Minister Ali Alatas and former Finance Minister Mar'ie Muhammad are of Hadhrami descent, as is the former Prime Minister of East Timor, Mari Alkatiri (2006).[42]

The Hadharem have also settled in large numbers along the East African coast,[43] and two former ministers in Kenya, Shariff Nasser and Najib Balala, are of Hadhrami descent. It has also been proved by genetic evidence[44] that the Lemba people of Southern Africa bear some relation to the people of Hadramaut.[45]

Within the Hadhramaut region there has been a historical Jewish population.[46][47][48]

See also

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Explanatory notes

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  1. ^ Also Hadramaut, Hadramout or Hadramawt

References

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  1. ^ Genesis 10:26
  2. ^ 1 Chronicles 1:20
  3. ^ Salibi, Kamal (1981). al-Qāḍī (ed.). "Ḥaḍramūt: A Name with a Story". Studia Arabica et Islamica: Festschrift for Iḥsān ʿAbbās on His Sixtieth Birthday: 393–397.
  4. ^ "Lost City of Arabia" (NOVA online interview with Dr. Juris Zarins, September 1996). PBS. September 1996.
  5. ^ "General word list". DASI: Digital Archive for the Study of pre-islamic arabian Inscriptions. Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  6. ^ Theophrastus: Historia Plantarum. 9,4.
  7. ^ Naval Western Arabia & The Red Sea p.224 Routledge, 2013 ISBN 978-1-136-20995-6
  8. ^ Holger Gzella Languages from the World of the Bible p.162 Walter de Gruyter, 2011 ISBN 978-1-934078-63-1
  9. ^ Woodard The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia p.145 Cambridge University Press ISBN 978-1-139-46934-0
  10. ^ Leonard & Brunschvig The Encyclopaedia of Islam Vol. II, p.183 ISBN 978-90-04-05745-6
  11. ^ a b c Beeston, A. F. L. (1971). "Ḥaḍramawt, I. Pre-Islamic Period". In Lewis, B.; Ménage, V. L.; Pellat, Ch. & Schacht, J. (eds.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition. Volume III: H–Iram. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 51–53. OCLC 495469525.
  12. ^ "South Arabia". nabataea.net. Retrieved October 8, 2019.
  13. ^ Robin (2017). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. Routledge. p. 281. ISBN 978-1-134-64634-0.
  14. ^ Miller Arabic Geography in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries p.37 Indiana University Press, 1999
  15. ^ Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf, Oman, and Central Arabia p.953 Government of India, 1908
  16. ^ a b Daftary, Farhad. The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines. pp. 237–239.
  17. ^ al Asqalani, Ibn Hajar; Muhammad ibn Idrīs al-Shafii, Abū ʿAbdillāh; ibn Kathir, Ismail; ibn faisal al-Tamimi al-Darimi, Abu Hatim Muhammad. "Al-Isabah Fi Tamyiz Al-Sahabah by Ibn Hajr; al Istishaab by Shafii; al Bidayah wan Nihayah by Ibn Kathir; Kitab al Sahaba by Ibn Hibban". Islam story. Story of Islam. Retrieved February 11, 2020.
  18. ^ Wensinck, A.J.; Pellat, Ch. (1960–2007). "Hūd" (PDF). In Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 537. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_2920. ISBN 978-90-04-16121-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 23, 2015. Retrieved November 28, 2022.
  19. ^ van der Meulen, Daniel [in Dutch]; von Wissmann, Hermann (1964). Hadramaut: Some of its mysteries unveiled. Publication of the De Goeje Fund no. 9. (1st ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands: E.J. Brill. ISBN 978-9-0040-0708-6.
  20. ^ Serjeant, Robert Bertram (1954). "Hud and Other Pre-islamic Prophets in Hadhramawt". Le Muséon. 67. Peeters Publishers: 129.
  21. ^ Al-Harawi, Ali ibn Abi Bakr. Kitab al-Isharat ila Ma rifat al-Ziyarat [Book of indications to make known the places of visitations]. pp. 97, 220–221.
  22. ^ a b Malekandathil, Pius. The Indian Ocean in the Making of Early Modern India. pp. 114–115.
  23. ^ "2 Yemens Become One, and Celebrate". The New York Times. May 23, 1990. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved September 2, 2024.
  24. ^ Alexandroni, Sam (October 18, 2007). "No Room at the Inn". New Statesman. Archived from the original on July 9, 2008.
  25. ^ a b Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Fisher, Martin (April 17, 2013). "1–2". Vegetation of the Arabian Peninsula. Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman: Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 27–55. ISBN 978-9-4017-3637-4.
  26. ^ Schofield, Richard N.; Blake, Gerald Henry (1988), "Arabian Boundaries: Primary Documents, 1853–1957", Archive Editions, vol. 22, p. 220, ISBN 1-85207-130-3, ...should be made along the coast to the west as far as the DHOFAR-HADHRAMAUT frontier...
  27. ^ ميخائيل رودينوف. عادات وتقاليد حضرموت الغربية.
  28. ^ Bilādī, ʿĀtiq ibn Ghayth (1982). بين مكة وحضرموت: رحلات ومشاهدات (in Arabic). دار مكة.
  29. ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2006). "I: Geography and climate". World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Cavendish Publishing. pp. 9–144. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0.
  30. ^ Scoville, Sheila A. (2006). Gazetteer of Arabia: a geographical and tribal history of the Arabian Peninsula. Vol. 2. Akademische Druck- u. Verlagsanstalt. pp. 117–122. ISBN 0-7614-7571-0.
  31. ^ Canton, James (August 25, 2014). "4: Modernising Arabia". From Cairo to Baghdad: British Travellers in Arabia. London and New York City: I.B. Tauris. p. 91. ISBN 978-0-8577-3571-3.
  32. ^ a b Prothero, G.W. (1920). Arabia. London: H.M. Stationery Office. pp. 84–85.
  33. ^ Yemen country profile. Library of Congress Federal Research Division (December 2006). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  34. ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration Archived March 3, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
  35. ^ CIA World Factbook Archived February 9, 2018, at the Wayback Machine
  36. ^ Ho, Engseng (2006), The Graves of Tarim: Genealogy and Mobility across the Indian Ocean, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0-520-93869-4
  37. ^ Khalidi, Omar (1996), "The Arabs of Hadramawt in Hyderabad", in Kulkarni; Naeem; De Souza (eds.), Mediaeval Deccan History, Bombay: Popular Prakashan, ISBN 978-8-1715-4579-7
  38. ^ Manger, Leif (2007), Hadramis in Hyderabad: From Winners to Losers, vol. 35, Asian Journal of Social Science, pp. 405–433 (29)
  39. ^ Tan, Joanna (July 20, 2018). "Singapore's Arab community traces ancestral roots to Yemen's Hadhramaut Valley". Arab News. Retrieved December 11, 2023.
  40. ^ Freitag, Ulrike; Clarence-Smith, William G. (1997). Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statesmen in the Indian Ocean, 1750s to 1960s. Brill. ISBN 9-0041-0771-1.
  41. ^ Ibrahim, Hassan; Shouk, Abu (March 16, 2009). The Hadhrami Diaspora in Southeast Asia: Identity Maintenance or Assimilation?. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-474-2578-6.
  42. ^ Agence France-Presse
  43. ^ Bang, Anne K. (2003), Sufis and Scholars of the Sea: Family Networks in East Africa, 1860–1925, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-31763-4
  44. ^ Soodyall, Himla (October 11, 2013). "Lemba origins revisited: tracing the ancestry of Y chromosomes in South African and Zimbabwean Lemba". South African Medical Journal = Suid-Afrikaanse Tydskrif vir Geneeskunde. 103 (12 Suppl 1): 1009–1013. doi:10.7196/samj.7297. ISSN 0256-9574. PMID 24300649.
  45. ^ Espar, David (February 22, 2000). "Tudor Parfitt's Remarkable Quest". NOVA. PBS. Retrieved February 4, 2015.
  46. ^ Wahrman, Miryam Z. (January 1, 2004). Brave New Judaism: When Science and Scripture Collide. UPNE. p. 150. ISBN 978-1-58465-032-4.
  47. ^ Ahroni, Reuben (1994). The Jews of the British Crown Colony of Aden: History, Culture, and Ethnic Relations. BRILL. ISBN 978-90-04-10110-4.
  48. ^ Skolnik, Fred (2007). Encyclopaedia Judaica: Gos-Hep. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 978-0-02-865936-7.
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