Politics of Portugal

Politics in Portugal operates as a unitary multi-party semi-presidential representative democratic republic, whereby the Prime Minister of Portugal is the head of government, and the President of Portugal is the non-executive head of state which, although it is a somewhat ceremonial figure, has some significant political powers they exercise often. Executive power is exercised by the Government, whose leader is the prime minister. Legislative power is primarily vested in the Assembly of the Republic (the Portuguese parliament), although the government is also able to legislate on certain matters. The Judiciary of Portugal is independent of the executive and the legislature. The President exerts a sort of "moderating power", not easily classified into any of the traditional three branches of government.

Since 1975, the party system has been dominated by the social democratic Socialist Party and the liberal-conservative Social Democratic Party.

According to the V-Dem Democracy Indices Portugal was, in 2023, the 20th most electoral democratic country in the world.

Political background

The national and regional governments are dominated by two political parties, the centre-left Socialist Party (PS), a social-democratic party, and the centre-right, liberal-conservative Social Democratic Party (PSD), which have similar basic policies in some respects: both are pro-European, support NATO membership, welfare state and market economy. Other parties with seats in the parliament are Chega, the Portuguese Communist Party, the Left Bloc, the Ecologist Party "The Greens", LIVRE, and People-Animals-Nature. The Communists and the Greens are in coalition as the Unitary Democratic Coalition.

In the Portuguese legislative election of 2011, the PSD won enough seats to form a majority government with the CDS-PP. The coalition, led by Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho, was supported by a majority in the Parliament of 132 MPs. The major opposition party was the Socialist Party (the party of the former prime minister José Sócrates, in office 2005–2011) with 74 MPs. Also represented were the Portuguese Communist Party (14 MPs), "The Greens" (2 MPs) and the Left Bloc (8 MPs), all to the left of the governing coalition.

In the 2015 elections, which the PSD and People's Party (CDS-PP) contested as a coalition, Portugal Ahead, the government lost its absolute majority. The left-wing parties, the Socialist Party, Portuguese Communist Party, Ecologist Party "The Greens", and Left Bloc, argued that as they were willing to form a coalition which would have a majority in the assembly, they ought to be invited to form the government, while Portugal Ahead, as the largest grouping, argued that they should be invited to form the government. After three weeks of uncertainty, the President designated Passos Coelho as prime minister, which was followed by the formation of a minority government. However, the Government Programmed was rejected by the Parliament. It was the shortest-lived Portuguese national government since the Carnation Revolution. Since then, the left-wing parties, led by the Socialist Party (PS), have formed the government. On 26 November 2015, there was established a PS minority government led by Prime Minister António Costa.

In the Portuguese legislative of 2019, the centre-left PS of incumbent Prime Minister Costa obtained the largest share of the vote, and the most seats. On 26 October 2019, there was established a new PS minority government led by Prime Minister António Costa. In the snap 2022 election the ruling PS won an outright majority. Following the Operation Influencer police searches, in November 2023, António Costa resigned and snap elections were called for 10 March 2024, which were won by the Democratic Alliance.

History

The São Bento Palace, home to the Portuguese Assembly of the Republic, in Lisbon

The first constitution was created in 1822 (following the Liberal Revolution of 1820), followed by a second in 1826, followed by a third in 1838 (after the Liberal Wars), a fourth in 1911 (following the 5 October 1910 revolution), and a fifth 1933 (after the 28 May 1926 coup d'état).

Portugal's 25 April 1976 constitution reflected the country's 1974–76 move from authoritarian rule to provisional military government to a representative democracy with some initial Communist and left-wing influence. The military coup in 1974, which became known as the Carnation Revolution, was a result of multiple internal and external factors like the colonial wars that ended in removing the dictator, Marcelo Caetano, from power. The prospect of a communist takeover in Portugal generated considerable concern among the country's NATO allies. The revolution also led to the country abruptly abandoning its colonies overseas and to the return of an estimated 600,000 Portuguese citizens from abroad. The 1976 constitution, which defined Portugal as a "Republic... engaged in the formation of a classless society," was revised in 1982, 1989, 1992, 1997, 2001, and 2004.

The 1982 revision of the constitution placed the military under strict civilian control, trimmed the powers of the president, and abolished the Revolutionary Council (a military body with legislative veto and quasi-judicial powers). The country joined the European Union in 1986, beginning a path toward greater economic and political integration with its richer neighbors in Europe. The 1989 revision of the constitution eliminated much of the remaining Marxist rhetoric of the original document, abolished the communist-inspired "agrarian reform", and laid the groundwork for further privatization of nationalized firms and the government-owned communications media. The 1992 revision made it compatible with the Maastricht Treaty.

The current Portuguese constitution provides for progressive administrative decentralization and calls for future reorganization on a regional basis. The Azores and Madeira archipelagos have constitutionally mandated autonomous status. A regional autonomy statute promulgated in 1980 established the Government of the Autonomous Region of the Azores; the Government of the Autonomous Region of Madeira operates under a provisional autonomy statute in effect since 1976. Apart from the Azores and Madeira, the country is divided into 18 districts, each headed by a governor appointed by the Minister of Internal Administration. Macau, a former dependency, reverted to Chinese sovereignty in December 1999.

I and II Constitutional Governments (1976–1978)

The Socialist Party, under the leadership of Mário Soares, rose to power after the 1976 legislative elections and formed the I Constitutional Government. However, this government faced a lot of problems due to the country's economic situation, and in 1978, the II Constitutional Government, a coalition between the Socialists and the Democratic and Social Centre, was sworn in. The coalition only lasted eight months and Mário Soares resigned.

III, IV and V Constitutional Governments (1978–1980)

President Eanes then nominated the III Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Alfredo Nobre da Costa, which was sworn in on late August 1978, but lasted just three months as it failed to gain Parliamentary support.

The IV Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Carlos Mota Pinto, was sworn in on late November 1978, but, like the previous government, lasted very little, eight months, due to its failure to pass policies in Parliament.

The president then swore in the V Constitutional Government, under the leadership of Maria de Lourdes Pintasilgo, the first and still only female prime minister in Portuguese history. The government managed the country until the early elections of December 1979.

VI, VII, VIII Constitutional Governments (1980–1983)

The Democratic Alliance, under the leadership of Francisco Sá Carneiro, won the 1979 legislative elections by a big margin and the VI Constitutional Government was sworn in in January 1980. Sá Carneiro's tenure was short lived as he died in a tragic plane crash in December 1980.

In January 1981, the Social Democratic Party, the main party within the Democratic Alliance, elected Francisco Pinto Balsemão as leader and the VII Constitutional Government was sworn in. Internal issues within the Alliance forced a new government to take office, the VIII Constitutional Government, in September 1981, also led by Pinto Balsemão. Balsemão resigned in late 1982.

IX Constitutional Government (1983–1985)

The Socialist Party, under the leadership of Mário Soares, returned to power after the 1983 legislative election and formed a Central Bloc government, the IX Constitutional Government, between the two main parties, the Socialists and the Social Democrats. Soares resigned in June 1985 after the Social Democrats withdrew from government.

X, XI and XII Constitutional Governments (1985–1995)

The Social Democratic Party, under the leadership of Aníbal Cavaco Silva, rose to power after the 1985 legislative elections and formed a minority government. However, the government lost the confidence of Parliament in April 1987 after losing a non-confidence vote. After this, President Mário Soares called an early election for July 1987.

The 1987 early elections were held on 19 July and resulted in a landslide majority government for the Social Democrats, the first time a party won a majority on its own in democracy. The XI Constitutional Government, the first one to finish a full 4-year term in democracy, was sworn in on 17 August 1987. During this term, the PSD government initiated a big program of liberalization and privatization of several sectors of the economy.

In the 1991 election the Social Democrats were returned again to power and, also, with an absolute majority. It was the third consecutive election victory for the PSD, a record in democracy. The XII Constitutional Government was sworn in on 31 October 1991. After 1992, the economy fell into a recession and despite the recession being over by mid 1994, the government was badly hit and Cavaco Silva decided to not run for a fourth term as prime minister. Cavaco Silva's 10-year tenure as prime minister is the longest, so far, in democracy.

XIII and XIV Constitutional Governments (1995–2002)

The Socialist Party, under the leadership of António Guterres, came to power following the October 1995 legislative elections. The Socialists later won a new mandate by winning exactly half the parliamentary seats in the October 1999 election, and constituting then the XIV Constitutional Government. Socialist Jorge Sampaio won the February 1996 presidential elections with nearly 54% of the vote. Sampaio's election marked the first time since the 1974 revolution that a single party held the prime ministership, the presidency, and a plurality of the municipalities. Local elections were held in December 1997.

Prime Minister Guterres continued the privatization and modernization policies initiated by his predecessor, Aníbal Cavaco Silva (in office 1985–1995) of the Social Democratic Party. Guterres was a vigorous proponent of the effort to include Portugal in the first round of countries to collaborate and put into effect the euro in 1999. In international relations, Guterres pursued strong ties with the United States and greater Portuguese integration with the European Union while continuing to raise Portugal's profile through an activist foreign policy. One of his first decisions as prime minister was to send 900 troops to participate in the IFOR peacekeeping mission in Bosnia. Portugal later contributed 320 troops to SFOR, the follow-up Bosnia operation. Portugal also contributed aircraft and personnel to NATO's Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. Guterres resigned in December 2001 after a disappointing result in the local elections.

XV Constitutional Government (2002–2004)

Following the results of the 2002 early election, the XV Constitutional Government, led by José Manuel Durão Barroso, leader of the Social Democratic Party, in coalition with the People's Party, whose leader, Paulo Portas, became Minister of Defence, was sworn in in April 2002. This government lasted two years because, in June 2004, Durão Barroso announced his resignation in order to become President of the European Commission.

XVI Constitutional Government (2004–2005)

After José Manuel Durão Barroso accepted the invitation to be the next European Commission President, a new government had to be formed. Though opposition parties called for general elections, President Jorge Sampaio named Pedro Santana Lopes, the new Social Democratic Party leader, as prime minister, who thus formed a new government, in coalition with the People's Party. However, in December 2004, due to several controversies involving the government, the President dissolved the parliament and called for early elections. Santana Lopes resigned after the announcement of the President's decision.

XVII and XVIII Constitutional Governments (2005–2011)

In the elections on 20 February, the Socialist Party obtained its largest victory ever, achieving an absolute majority for the first time in the party's history. Prime Minister José Sócrates was sworn in by President Jorge Sampaio on 12 March. To many's surprise, Sócrates formed a cabinet made up of roughly half senior members of the Socialist Party and half independents, notably including Diogo Freitas do Amaral, founder of the right wing People's Party, who assumed office as Ministry of Foreign Affairs (he later resigned due to personal issues).

In the elections on 27 September 2009, The Socialist Party, led by incumbent Prime Minister José Sócrates, won the largest number of seats, but did not repeat the overall majority they gained in 2005. Sócrates was reconducted but lost his majority. The 2010 European debt crisis led Portugal to ask for a bailout from the IMF and the European Union. This situation led to the resignation of José Sócrates as prime minister and the President dissolved parliament and called an early election for June 2011.

XIX and XX Constitutional Governments (2011–2015)

In the elections held on 5 June 2011, the Social Democratic Party won enough seats to form a majority government with the People's Party. The Government was led by Pedro Passos Coelho. It had 11 ministers and was sworn in on 21 June.

The Portuguese legislative election of 2015 was held on 4 October. The results display a relative victory of the right-wing coalition, but they also display a combined victory of the left-wing parties (including the Socialist Party), with a hung parliament (a right-wing single winner and a left-wing majority parliament). After the election, the XX Constitutional Government of Portugal had Pedro Passos Coelho (PSD) as the prime minister and lasted from 30 October 2015 to 26 November 2015. However, the Government Programme was rejected by the Parliament. It was the shortest-lived Portuguese national government since the Carnation Revolution.

XXI, XXII and XXIII Constitutional Governments (2015–2024)

The 21st cabinet of the Portuguese government since the establishment of the current constitution. It was established on 26 November 2015 as a Socialist Party (PS) minority government led by Prime Minister António Costa.

The Portuguese legislative election of 2019 was held on 6 October 2019. The centre-left Socialist Party (PS) of incumbent Prime Minister Costa obtained the largest share of the vote, and the most seats. The XXII Constitutional Government of Portugal was sworn in on 26 October 2019 as a Socialist Party (PS) minority government led by Prime Minister António Costa. In October 2021, the budget proposed by the government was rejected by Parliament, leading President Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa to call an early election for January 2022.

The 2022 early elections were held on 30 January 2022. The election resulted in an absolute majority for the Socialist Party, the second in its history. However, the government swearing in was postponed because of a rerun in the overseas constituency of Europe, and the XXIII Constitutitional Government, led by Prime Minister António Costa, was only sworn in on 30 March 2022. António Costa resigned on 7 November 2023, following the Operation Influencer police searches into government contracts surrounding lithium and hydrogen businesses. The President dissolved parliament and called early elections.

XXIV Constitutional Government (2024–)

In the elections held on 10 March 2024, the Democratic Alliance, alliance between the Social Democratic Party, People's Party and the People's Monarchist Party, won enough seats to form a minority government. The Government led by Luís Montenegro has 17 ministers and was sworn in on 2 April 2024.

Political powers

Portuguese branches of government
Órgãos de soberania

Semi-presidential republic
Formation	25 April 1976 (1976-04-25)
Founding document	1976 Constitution
Country	Portugal
President of the Republic
Holder	Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa
Seat	Belém Palace
Legislative branch
Legislature	Assembly of the Republic
Speaker	José Pedro Aguiar-Branco
Deputy Speaker	Teresa Morais, Marcos Perestrello, Diogo Pacheco de Amorim, Rodrigo Saraiva
Assembly members	230
Meeting place	São Bento Palace
Executive branch
Prime Minister	Luís Montenegro
Main body	Government
Vice Prime Minister	Currently none
Appointed by	President of the Republic
Headquarters	São Bento Mansion
Main organ	Council of Ministers
Departments	Ministries and State Secretariats
Judicial branch
Court	Constitutional Court
President	José João Abrantes
Seat	Ratton Palace
Other courts and presidents	Supreme Court of Justice (João Cura Mariano), Supreme Administrative Court (Dulce Neto), Court of Auditors (José Tavares)

Government in Portugal is made up of three branches originally envisioned by enlightenment philosopher Baron de Montesquieu: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each branch is separate and is designed to keep checks and balances on the others. The President's powers, however, do not fall into either of the traditional three, forming instead a sort of "moderating power" over the government and the legislature.

The four main organs of the national government are the President, the Government (which includes the prime minister and the Council of Ministers), the Assembly of the Republic (Parliament), and the judiciary, made up of different hierarchies of courts (the Supreme Court of Justice and its lower courts, the Supreme Adminsitrative Court and its lower courts, the Constitutional Court and the Court of Auditors).

Main office-holders

Office	Name	Party	Since
President	Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa	Social Democratic Party	9 March 2016
Prime Minister	Luís Montenegro	Social Democratic Party	2 April 2024

President

Belém Palace, the official residence of the President.

The President, elected to a 5-year term by direct, universal suffrage, is also commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Presidential powers include appointing the prime minister and Council of Ministers, in which the President must be guided by the assembly election results; dismissing the prime minister; dissolving the assembly to call early elections; vetoing legislation, which may be overridden by the assembly; and declaring a state of war or siege, only with the approval of the assembly and on government advice.

The Council of State, a presidential advisory body, is composed of:

• The President of the Assembly of the Republic
• The Prime Minister of Portugal
• The President of the Constitutional Court of Portugal
• The Ombudsman of Portugal
• Both Presidents of the regional governments of the autonomous regions (Madeira and Azores)
• Former Presidents of the Republic
• Five citizens appointed by the President of the Republic
• Five citizens appointed by the Assembly of the Republic

The president, according to the election results, names the party that shall form a government, whose leader is appointed prime minister. The prime minister names the Council of Ministers, and the ministers name their Secretaries of State. A new government is required to define the broad outline of its policy in a program and present it to the assembly for a mandatory period of debate. Failure of the assembly to reject the program by a majority of deputies confirms the government in office.

Presidential elections

Main article: 2021 Portuguese presidential election

Candidate		Party	Votes	%
	Marcelo Rebelo de Sousa	Social Democratic Party–People's Party	2,531,692	60.67
	Ana Gomes	Independent supported by People Animals Nature–LIVRE	540,823	12.96
	André Ventura	Chega	497,746	11.93
	João Ferreira	Portuguese Communist Party–The Greens	179,764	4.31
	Marisa Matias	Left Bloc–Socialist Alternative Movement	165,127	3.96
	Tiago Mayan Gonçalves	Liberal Initiative	134,991	3.23
	Vitorino Silva	React, Include, Recycle	123,031	2.95
Total			4,173,174	100.00
Valid votes			4,173,174	98.00
Invalid votes			38,018	0.89
Blank votes			47,164	1.11
Total votes			4,258,356	100.00
Registered voters/turnout			10,847,434	39.26
Source: Comissão Nacional de Eleições

Legislative branch

São Bento Palace, the meeting place of Parliament.

Legislative power is exercised by the Assembly of the Republic, which is the parliament of Portugal, although the Government also has a more limited ability to legislate on some matters (on others, Parliament has exclusive legislative competence). It is also the body which holds the Government accountable and has the means to remove it from office at any time, as described earlier, primarily through a motion of no confidence, although alternative methods exist.

The Assembly of the Republic is a unicameral body composed of 230 deputies (that is, members of parliament). Elected by universal suffrage according to a system of proportional representation, deputies serve terms of office of 4 years, unless the president dissolves the assembly and calls for new elections. According to the constitution, members of the assembly represent the entire country, not the constituency from which they are elected.

Political parties in legislative elections

For other political parties, see List of political parties in Portugal. An overview on elections and election results is included in Elections in Portugal.

Main article: 2024 Portuguese legislative election

Summary of the 10 March 2024 Assembly of the Republic elections results

Parties			Votes	%	±pp swing	MPs					MPs %/ votes %
						2022	2024	±	%	±
		Democratic Alliance (PSD/CDS–PP/PPM)	1,814,002	28.01	1.8	74	77	3	33.48	1.3	1.20
		Madeira First (PSD/CDS–PP)	52,989	0.82	0.1	3	3	0	1.30	0	1.59
		People's Monarchist	451	0.01	0.0	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
	Total Democratic Alliance		1,867,442	28.83	1.9	77	80	3	34.78	1.3	1.21
		Socialist	1,812,443	27.98	13.4	120	78	42	33.91	18.3	1.21
		CHEGA	1,169,781	18.06	10.9	12	50	38	21.74	16.5	1.20
		Liberal Initiative	319,877	4.94	0.0	8	8	0	3.48	0	0.70
		Left Bloc	282,314	4.36	0.0	5	5	0	2.17	0	0.50
		Unitary Democratic Coalition	205,551	3.17	1.1	6	4	2	1.74	0.9	0.55
		LIVRE	204,875	3.16	1.9	1	4	3	1.74	1.3	0.55
		People–Animals–Nature	126,125	1.95	0.4	1	1	0	0.43	0	0.22
		National Democratic Alternative	102,134	1.58	1.4	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		React, Include, Recycle	26,092	0.40	0.0	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Together for the People	19,145	0.30	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		New Right	16,456	0.25	—	—	0	—	0.00	—	0.0
		Portuguese Workers' Communist	15,491	0.24	0.0	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Volt Portugal	11,854	0.18	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Rise Up	6,030	0.09	0.0	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Alternative 21 (Earth Party/Alliance)	4,265	0.07	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Labour	2,435	0.04	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		We, the Citizens!	2,399	0.04	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0	0.0
		Socialist Alternative Movement	0	0.00	0.1	0	0	0	0.00	0.0	0.0
Total valid			6,194,709	95.64	1.8	230	230	0	100.00	0	—
Blank ballots			89,847	1.39	0.3
Invalid ballots			192,396	2.97	1.5
Total			6,476,952	100.00
Registered voters/turnout			10,813,643	59.90	8.4
Source: Comissão Nacional de Eleições

Executive branch

São Bento Mansion, the official residence and office of the Prime Minister.

Executive power is exercised by the Government of Portugal. The Government is formed after the President appoints the prime minister based on election results, as described earlier – traditionally, the leader of the most voted party.

The Government can only remain in place for as long as the Parliament allows: the Parliament can remove the Government at the beginning by approving a motion of rejection to the introductory Government programme, or at any time by approving a motion of no confidence, either of which is achieved by a simple majority; the Government may also, of its own initiative, choose to present at any time a motion of confidence, which acts as the opposite of a motion of no confidence: if rejected, the Government is removed. Finally, the Government also relies on Parliament to approve the state budget, which also allows Parliament to indirectly force the Government to resign by rejecting its budget proposal. Thus, the Government, although not directly elected, is held accountable before Parliament, which is proportionally representative of the people. Typically, once the Government is removed from office, the President will call a snap election (also known as an early election).

Current government composition:

See also: XXIV Constitutional Government of Portugal

Office	Minister		Party		Start of term	End of term
Prime Minister		Luís Montenegro		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of State and of Foreign Affairs		Paulo Rangel		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of State and of Finance		Joaquim Miranda Sarmento		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of the Presidency		António Leitão Amaro		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister Adjunct and for Territorial Cohesion		Manuel Castro Almeida		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Parliamentary Affairs		Pedro Duarte		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of National Defence		Nuno Melo		CDS-PP	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Justice		Rita Júdice		Independent	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Internal Administration		Margarida Blasco		Independent	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Education, Science and Innovation		Fernando Alexandre		Independent	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Health		Ana Paula Martins		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Infrastructure and Housing		Miguel Pinto Luz		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Economy		Pedro Reis		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Labour, Solidarity and Social Security		Maria do Rosário Palma Ramalho		Independent	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of the Environment and Energy		Graça Carvalho		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Youth and Modernisation		Margarida Balseiro Lopes		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries		José Manuel Fernandes		PSD	2 April 2024	Incumbent
Minister of Culture		Dalila Rodrigues		Independent	2 April 2024	Incumbent

Judicial branch

Supreme Court of Justice's seat.

Administrative Supreme Court's seat.

Ratton Palace, the Constitutional Court's seat.

The national Supreme Court is the court of last appeal in civil and criminal matters, which is described by the Constitution as "the senior organ in the hierarchy of the courts of law". There is a separate system of courts for administrative and fiscal matters, for which the court of last appeal is the Supreme Administrative Court. During war time, the law provides for there being military courts.

A thirteen-member Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of legislation. There is also a Court of Auditors.

Administrative divisions

See also: Subdivisions of Portugal

There are two autonomous regions (regiões autónomas, singular região autónoma) with limited legislative powers besides the administrative ones: Azores and Madeira. As purely administrative divisions, there are 18 districts (distritos), 308 municipalities (municípios) and 3,091 civil parishes (freguesias). The districts are Aveiro, Açores (Azores)*, Beja, Braga, Bragança, Castelo Branco, Coimbra, Évora, Faro, Guarda, Leiria, Lisboa, Madeira*, Portalegre, Porto, Santarém, Setúbal, Viana do Castelo, Vila Real and Viseu.

See also

• Assembly of the Republic
• Foreign relations of Portugal
• Member of the European Parliament
• Sinistrisme
• Politics of France (similar system of Government)
• Politics of Romania (similar system of Government)

External links

• Portuguese government website
• Associação portuguesa de ciência política
• Election results
• Comissão Nacional de Eleições